रूस तथा भारत में उपन्यास

 

r}sa taqaa Baarta maoM {panyaasax:

paiScamaI saaMskRxitakx kRxitayaaoM kox gaÜOr paiScamaI saMskRxita maoM pa`tyaaraopaNa kox dao {dahrNa ¹

लेखक: सिर्गेइ सेरेब्र्यनी

अनुवाद : आ. चारुमति रामदास

 

 

ekx r}saI Baartaivad\ kox ilayao Baarta AaOr r}sa kxI taulanaa kxrnaa hmaoSaa AakxYa-kx rha hOx| magar [na taulanaaAaoM kox ilayao ekx inaYpaXa AaQaarx(kxarNax,AaOicatya) BaI hOx| e. Ta^yanbaI kox SabdaoM maoMx,xr}sa taqaa Baarta daonaaoM x"xmahana gaÜOràpaiScamaI maanavataa kox bahutaaMSa maoM "xsaimmailata hOM " ² | Baarta evama\ r}sa daonaaoM kxa ipaClao taIna saaO vaYaaoo-M (18vaIMà20vaIM SataaibdyaaoM) kxa  [itahasaàkxafÜxI hd takx paiScama kox saaqa saMGaYa- kxI kxhanaI hOx,xAaOr saaqa hIàkxhanaI hO kx[- paiScamaI saaMskRxitakx kRxitayaaoM kox gaÜOràpaiScamaI x"ximaÕIx" maoM sqaanaaMtarNax(pa`tyaaraopaNa) kxIx|

18vaIMà19vaIM SataaibdyaaoM maoM r}saI saama`ajya AaOr iba`iTSa BaartaIya saama`ajya kxI sqaapanaa AaOr ivakxasa kxao {sa vaOiSvakx pa`ik`xyaa kxa ekx AMSa samaJaa jaa sakxtaa hO ijasao saMXaopa maoM x"xpaiScama kxa ivastaarx" kxh sakxtao hOMx| r}saI saama`ajya kxa [itahasa paITr pa`qama kox sauQaaraoM sao AarMBa haotaa hOx,ijasanao paiScama yaUraopaIya saByataa kox kuxC tatvaaoM kxao gaÜOràpaiScamaI r}saI imaÕI maoM pa`sqaaipata kxrnao maoM kxDÜI maohnata kxIx|paITr pa`qama AaOr {sakox {<araiQakxairyaaoM kxI saama`ajya inamaa-Na kxI pa`ik`xyaa Baartax(diXaNa eiSayaa) maoM iba`iTSaaoM kxI saama`ajya

inamaa-Na pa`ik`xyaa kox samaana hOx,xijanhaoMnao BaI [sa pa`ik`xyaa kox daOranaàjaanabaUJakxr yaa saMyaaogavaSaà Baarta kxI gaÜOr paiScamaI imaÕI maoM paiScamaI saByataa kox Anaokx tatvaaoM kxa pa`tyaaraopaNa ikxyaax|

A@sar [na daonaaoM saama`ajyaaoM kox [itahasa ekxdma iBaÙa tarIkÜxaoM sao AaOr iBaÙa SabdaoM maoM saunaayao jaatao hOMx:xx ekx hO r}sa kox pairvata-na kxI kxhanaI ijasao AarMBa ikxyaa AaOr Aagao baZÜayaa svayaM r}isayaaoM naox,xdUsarI hO kxhanaI ek ivadoSaI taakÜxta kxI ekx x"x{painavaoiSatax" yaa x"xAQaInasqax" doSa maoM | magar yah iBaÙataa {tanaI inaiva-vaad nahIM hao sakxtaI ijatanaI ikx pa`taIta haotaI hOx| 18vaIMà19vaIM SataaibdyaaoM maoM Baarta kxa r}paantarNa na koxvala iba`iTSaaoM Warax,xbailkx Anaokx BaartaIyaaoM Wara BaI ikxyaa gayaa qaax,xjaaox,xikxsaI na ikxsaI tarIkÜox saox,xivadoSaI SaasakxaoM kox pa`yatnaaoM maoM Saaimala hao gayao qao AaOróAqavaa {namaoM yaaogadana dotao qaox(kxBaI kxBaI saMSaaoQana BaI kxrtao qao)x|xdUsarI Aaorx,xr}saxkxa r}paantarNa na koxvala paiScamaI yaUraopa kox {dahrNa Wara pa`oirta qaax,xbailkx [sa pa`ik`xyaa maoM 18vaI taqaa 19vaIM SataabdI maoM BaI Anaokx paaScaatya inavaaisayaaoM nao kx[- mahtvapaUNa- BaUimakxayaoM inaBaa[-Mxx|x18xvaIM SataabdI kox {<araQa- sao r}sa kox sama`aT BaI jaataIya r}pa sao r}saI kxI ApaoXaa AiQakx paiScamaI yaUraopaIyax(AiQakxaMSa jama-na) qaox|xpaITr pa`qama Wara AarMBa ikxyao gayao x "xyaUraopaIkxrNax" kox baad ekx Aaor Saasakx taqaa iSaiXata vaga-  AaOr dUsarI Aaor paarMpairkx janataa kox baIca kxI saaMskRxitakx dUrI {sa dUrI sao mauiSkxla sao hI kxma qaI jaao Baarta maoM iba`iTSaaoM x(AaOr saaqa hI yaUraopaIkRxta iSaiXata vaga-) evama\ baakÜxI laaogaaoM kox baIca saaMskRxitakx star par qaIx|  19vaIM SataabdI kox x"slaavaaoifÜxlax" ivacaarkx xr}sa maoM r}saI iSaiXata vaga- kxI x"xivadoiSataax" kxao roKaaMikxta kxrtao hue kxBaI kxBaI {sakxI taulanaa Baarta maoMx iba`iTSaaoM sao ikxyaa kxrtao qaox|

paITr pa`qama nao sana\ 1703 maoM Apanao nayao saama`ajya kxI rajaQaanaIx,xsaoMTàpaITsa-baga- kxax,xnaovaa nadI kox mauhanao par

inamaa-Na ikxyaax,xijasanao mauKya BaUima kxao samaud`aoM AaOr mahasaagaraoM  sao jaaoDÜax|xlagaBaga {saI samayax,xsana\ 1690 kox dSakx kox AMitama vaYaao-M maoMx,xiba`iTSaaoM nao Baarta maoM Apanao saama`ajya kxI BaavaI rajaQaanaIx,xkxlakx<aa kxax(ijasao Aba Baarta maoM kxaolakxtaa) ilaKaa jaataa hO)xinamaa-Na ikxyaax,xgaMgaa koxx,x{sa nadI kox ,xmauhanao parx,xijasanao iba`iTSaaoM kox ilayao mauKya BaUima kxao samaud`aoM evama\ mahasaagaraoM sao jaaoDÜax| paITr pa`qamax(saupa`isaw kxhavata kox Anausaar) x"xyaUraopa maoM iKaDÜkxI Kaaolanaa " caahtao qaox| iba`iTSa caahtao qao x"xBaarta maoM iKaDÜkxI Kaaolanaax"x| daonaaoM hI isqaitayaaoM maoM rajaQaanaI kox ilayao sqaana kxa caunaavax,xjaao rajakxIya evama\ Aaiqa-kx pahlauAaoM kxao dRiYTgata rKakxr ikxyaa gayaa qaax,xsaaOBaagyaSaalaI nahIM rhax:xsaoMTxàpaITsa-baga- AaOr kxlakx<aa kox bauro maaOsama kxI iSakxayataoM k`xmaSa: r}sa taqaa Baarta maoM cacaa- kxa ivaYaya rhI hOMx| daonaaoM rajaQaainayaaoM kox vaastauiSalpa maoM BaI caaOMkxanao vaalaI samaanataayaoM xhOM ³ |

ekx ivaica~a saMyaaogavaSax,daonaaoM Sahr Apanao Apanao saama`ajyaaoM kxI rajaQaainayaa^M nahIM rhox,xlagaBaga ekx hI kxalaKaMDÜ maoMx:xkxlakx<aaàxSaasakxIya r}pa sao sana\ 1911 maoM magar vaastaivakx r}pa sao 1920 kox dSakx kox AarMBa maoMx;xsaoMTxà paITsa-baga-x(jaao taba takx pao~aaooga`ad kxhlaayaa jaanao lagaa qaa) sana\ 1918 maoMx| daonaaoM hI AvasqaaAaoM maoM SaasakxaoM nao rajaQaanaI kxao Apanao pauranao sqaanax,xmauKya BaUima kox koxnd` xmaoM : Baarta mao idllaI taqaa r}sa maoM maa^skxaoxxlao jaanao kxa inaNa-ya ilayaa |

magar yah saMyaaoga nahIM hO ikx r}sa AaOr Baarta daonaaoM maoM pahlao {panyaasax(paiScamaI namaUnao kox AaQaar par ilaKao gayao) k`xmaSa: saoMT paITsa-baga- taqaa kxlakx<aa maoM hI pa`kxaiSata huex|

 ekx saaihityakx ivaQaa kox r}pa maoM {panyaasa {na Anaokx saaMskRxitakx {tpaadaoMàmaud`Nax,xrolagaaDÜIx,xpa`yaaogaatmakx iva&aanax,ivaSvaivaValayax,xsaMsadIya laaokxtan~a Aaid maoM sao ekx qaa jaao paiScama sao Baarta AaOr r}sa daonaaoM maoM hstaaMtairta ikxyao gayao qaox| vaastava maoMx,xvaNa-na evama\ ivaSlaoYaNa kox ekx ivaYaya kox r}pa maoM {panyaasa kxa caunaava kxuC kRxi~amax(ha^Mlaaikx paUrI tarh vaOQa evama\ saamaanya) x"xkxqana kxI naIitaxx" hOx|x{panyaasa kxI ivaQaa kxao r}sa taqaa Baarta daonaaoM maoM hstaaMtairta ikxyaa gayaa qaa ekx AiQakx baDÜo samaga` kox AMSa kox r}pa maoM ijasao x"x(AaQauinakx) saaihtyax" kxhtao hOMx|xvata-maana {_oSyaaoM kox ilayao (AaQauinakxx) saaihtya kxa vaNa-na [sa pa`kxar ikxyaa jaa sakxtaa hOx: (AaQauinakx) saaihtyaxxekx saamaaijakxx(saaMskRxitakx) saMsqaaàevama\àpa`ik`xyaa hOx,ijasakox Antaga-ta Saaimala hO  ikxsaI Xao~aIya BaaYaa   maoM (ivaiBaÙa pa`kxar koxx) mauid`ta  paazaoM (texts) kxa ekx  iSaiXata  samaUh maoM ivatarNa , jaao [na paazaoM kxa x"x{payaaoga kxrtaa hOx" {nhoM paZÜkxrx,xvyai@tagata r}pa sao  (yaa CaoTo CaoTo samaUhaoMx,jaOsao pairvaar maoM)x| jaha^M takx mauJao &aata hOx,xr}sa yaa Baarta maoM ekx samaga` saamaaijakx saaMskRxitakx saMsqaa kox r}pa maoMx AaQauinakx saaihtya kox pa`tyaaraopaNa kxa [itahasa Aba takx ilaKaa nahIM gayaa hOx|xAta: maoro AalaoKa kox ilayao maOMnao [sa AiQakx ivastaRtax(AaOr Aba takx AilaiKata) [itahasax([itahasaaoM) kox ekx AMSa kxao caunaa hOx|x[sa inabaMQa kxa ivaYaya x"taulanaatmakx sqaanaantarNa iva&aanax" yaa "xtaulanaatmakx hstaaMtarNa iva&aanax" kxha jaa sakxtaa hOx|

maOM r}sa sao AarMBa kxrtaa h^MUx,x@yaaoMikx [sa daohrI kxhanaI kxa r}saI ihssaa Saayad AiQakx AcCI tarh sao pairicata haox,xsaMXaopa maoM kxha jaa sakxtaa hao AaOr Saayad maoro AalaoKa kox BaartaIya AMSa kox ilayao ekx pa`kxar kxI paRYzBaUima kxa kxaya- kxrox|

"xAaQauinakx saaihtyax" kxax({}par vaiNa-ta Aqa- maoM) saMsqaakxrNa r}sa maoM AarMBa huAa 18vaIM SataabdI maoMx|r}saI saaihtya kox maanakx [itahasaaoM maoM [sa SataabdI kxao ekx paRqakx kxala KaMDÜ kox r}pa maoMx,x19vaIM taqaa 20vaIM SataabdI kox vaastaivakx AaQauinakx kxala kxI ivastaRta x"xpa`staavanaax" kox r}pa maoM doKaa jaataa hOx| vaakÜx[- maoMx,xekx AaOsata r}pa sao iSaiXata r}saI kxI  "xsaaMskRxitakx smaRitax" 19vaIM AaOr 18vaIM SataaibdyaaoM kxI saImaaroKaa kox paarx,xmaaoTo taaOr sao Alao@saand` paUiSkxnax(1799à1837) evama\ {nakox samakxailakxaoM sao paro nahIM jaataI hOx|

magar ijasa laoKakx kxao Aba pa`qama r}saI {panyaasakxar maanaa jaataa hO ,x{sakxa inaQana paUiSkxna kox janma sao paUva- hI hao gayaax|xr}sa maoM {sao FÜyaaodaor emaIna kox naama sao jaanaa jaataa hOx(jaIvanakxala :x1735à1770)x| yah Aakxismakx nahIM hO ikx ijasa vyai@ta nao sava-pa`qama r}sa maoM {panyaasa kxI ivaQaa kxa pa`tyaaraopaNa ikxyaa vah ekx ivadoSaI qaax(ekx A&aata jaaitagata paircaya vaalaax; Saayad Aamao-inayanax,xyaa hao sakxtaa hO vlaaKaÜx (maldaivayanaór}maainayanax) yaa diXaNaI slaava haox,xmagar Qama- sao mauislama qaax,xlaMdna isqata r}saI dUtaavaasa maoM baaiptajÜmaa haonao sao pahlao)x| [staambaUlax(yaa kxaonsTainTnaaopaaola) maoM janmaax,[TlaI maoM iSaiXatax(kxhtao hOM ikx {sao laOiTna taqaa Anaokx AaQauinakx yaUraopaIya BaaYaaAaoM kxa &aana qaa) emaIna saoMT paITsa-bauga- Aayaa sana\ 1761 maoM AaOr Anaokx sqaanaaoM par taqaa k^xqarIna iWtaIya kox x" man~aImaMDÜlax" takx Anauvaadkx kox r}pa maoM kxama kxrtaa rhax|xdsa vaYaao-M sao kxma samaya maoM {sanao {ÙaIsa paustakoMx pa`kxaiSata kxIMx,ijanamaoM AiQakxaMSa {panyaasa qaox,paiScamaI yaUraopaIya namaUnaaoM par ilaKao gayaox|x{sakox  {panyaasa  "AnsT- AaOr daorava`a kox pa~ax" (1766) kxao jaanaàjaakx r}saao kox "Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloise" (1761) kxI paunar-canaa kxha jaa sakxtaa hOx| magar Aaja kox r}sa maoM emaIna kox {panyaasa paZÜo jaatao hOMx(Agar eosaa hO taao) koxvala saaihtya kox [itahasakxaraoM Warax|

sabasao AarMiBakx r}saI {panyaasa ijasao r}isayaaoM Wara ABaI BaI baDÜo caava sao paZÜa jaataa hOx, vah hO x"xyaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax" "xAlao@saand` paUiSkxna Wara ricata paVatmakx {panyaasax"x(jaOsaa ikx {sakxa {paSaIYa-kx hO)x,xjaao ilaKaa gayaa qaa 1823à1831 kox daOranax(pahlaa sampaUNa- saMskxrNax: saoMTàpaITsa-bauga-x,1833)|xsaaihtya kox [itahasakxar Anaokx paiScamaI yaUraopaIya kRxitayaaoM kxI Aaor [Saara kxrtao hOMx,ijanhaoMnao paUiSkxna kxao pa`oirta ikxyaa haogaax(ikxyaa qaa) AaOr jaao x"xyaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax" kox ilayao ekx pa`kxar kox x"xmaa^Dolax" (pa`itar}pax,xnamaUnaax)xrho haoMgaox| sabasao pahlao {llaoKa ikxyaa jaataa hO baoMjaamaoM kxaonstaaM kox x"xADÜaolfÜxx"(1816) taqaa jaa^ja- baayarna kox  x"xDa^na jauAanax" (1818à1823)xkxax| ifÜxr BaI x"xyaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax" ekx Atyanta maaOilakx kRxita hOx(kxma sao kxma r}isayaaoM kxI kxlpanaa maoM)x,xvaakÜx[- samaUcao r}saI saaihtya kox mahanatama {panyaasaaoM maoM sao ekx hOx| 20vaIM SataabdI maoMx,xkxafÜxI baad takxx,xx"xyaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax" kxaox(jaha^M takx mauJao maalaUma hO) r}sa kox baahr baDÜo paOmaanao par saraha nahIM gayaa qaax| magar SataabdI kox {<araQa- maoM AMga`ojaÜI maoM [sakox kx[- Anauvaad pa`kxaiSata huex,AaOr [namaoM sao ekx (sana\ 1977 maoMx,xcaalsa- jaa^nsTna Wara ⁴ ) nao BaartaIya laoKakx ivak`xma saoz (janma 1952x,xkxlakx<aa maoMx!x) kxao pa`oirta ikxyaa Apanaa paVatmakx {panyaasa x"xid gaaolDna gaoTx"x(AMga`ojaÜI maoM)  ilaKanao kox ilayaox,xjaao inaiScata r}pa sao x"xyaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax" kox namaUnao par AaQaairta hOx⁵ | [sa taqya kxa {payaaoga yah isaw kxrnao kox ilayao ikxyaa jaa sakxtaa hO ikx paUiSkxna kox {panyaasa kxao Aba x"xivaSva saaihtyax" kxI ekx mahtvapaUNa- rcanaa kox r}pa maoM dRZÜ maanyataa imala caukxI hOx|

magar pahlao r}saI {panyaasakxar ijanakxI rcanaaAaoM kxao r}sa sao baahr 1880 kox dSakx maoM pa`isawI pa`apta hu[-x,xpahlao paiScama yaUraopa maoM AaOr {sakox baadx,yaha^M sao SaoYa ivaSva maoMx,paUiSkxna sao lagaBaga dao paIiZÜyaa^M CaoTo qaox|xAba taao {nakoxà[-vaana taugao-naovax(1818à1883)x,xFÜyaaodaorxdaostaaoyaovskxIx(1821à1881) ,xlaova Ta^lsTa^yax(1828à1910)xxkoxànaama vaakÜx[- maoM samaUcao ivaSva maoM fÜOla caukox hOMx|saaMskRxitakx inaima-itax({panyaasa)x,jaao r}sa maoM paiScama sao Aayaa qaax,r}isayaaoM Wara [tanaI kuxSalataa sao saMjaaoyaa AaOr sampaUNa- ikxyaa gayaa ikx [sakox r}saI r}pax(r}paantar) paiScamavaaisayaaoM kox paasa lagaBaga ekx pa`kxar kox rhsyaaod\GaaTna kox r}pa maoM vaapasa paMhucaox|

ivaKyaata r}saI jama-naivad\ iva@tar iJamaU-nskxIx(1891à1971) ApanaI paustakx "r}saI saaihtya maoM gyaaoqaox" (pa`qama saMskxrNa 1937) maoM ekx saMkxlpanaax rKatao hOMxx(kxh sakxtao hOMx,ekx AvaQaarNaa pa`stauta kxrtao hOM) jaaox,xmaoro ivacaar saox,x[sa laoKa kox ivaYaya kox ilayao taqaa Aama taaOr sao saaMskRxitakx hstaaMtarNa kox AQyayana kox ilayao kxafÜxI mahtvapaUNa- hOx| iJamaU-nskxI ilaKatao hOMx: x"x18vaIM SataabdI kox jama-na baujau-Aa saaihtya kxI AarMiBakx Avasqaa ABaI BaI kxafÜxI hd takx raYT/Iya maaOilakxtaa Wara pa`diSa-ta nahIM haotaI hOx AaOr vah paiScama kox ivakxisata saaihtyaaoMx,f`ÜaMsaIsaI taqaa AMga`ojaÜI ,xkox namaUnaaoM kxa AnausarNa kxrtaI hO.....êkoxvalaë yauvaa gyaaoqao kxI rcanaaAaoM sao hI jama-na baujau-Aa saaihtya pahlaI baar svatan~a r}pa sao ivaSvaàmaMca par pa`ivaYT huAa..."vaoqao-rx"...pahlaI kRxita qaI ikxsaI jama-na laoKakx kxI jaao yauvaa jama-na baujau-Aa saaihtya xkxao pa`aMtaIyataax

(saMkxINa-taa ?) evaM svayaMàsaovaax(maUla r}saI maoM : samoobsluviwanie--samo-obsluzhivaniye) kxI Avasqaa sao x"xivaSva saaihtyax" kox raja maagaao-M par laa[-x ⁶ |

ijasa saMkxlpanaax(AvaQaarNaa) kxI Aaor maOM Qyaana AakxiYa-ta kxrnaa caahUMgaax,vah hO "xsamo-obsluzhivanie" (r}saI Sabd jama-na Selbstbedienung yaa AMga`ojaÜI self-service kxa PNaanauvaad hO)x|xhma iJamaU-nskxI kxI saMiXapta iTppaNaI kxI inamna pa`kxar sao vyaaKyaa kxr sakxtao hOMx| jaba kxao[- saaMskRxitakx

inaima-ita ekx saMskRxita sao dUsarI maoM pa`tyaaraoipata haotaI hOx,taao pahlao {sakxa nayao vaataavarNa maoM pairYkxar ikxyaa jaataa hOx,x{sa tarIkÜox sao jaao kxafÜxI saSa@ta r}pa sao {saI vaataavarNa Warax,x{sakxI parMparaAaoM evama\ AavaSyakxtaaAaoM Wara inaQaa-irta ikxyaa jaataa hOx,AaOr [saIilayao [sa inaima-ita kox nayao

x"sqaanaIyax" saMSaaoQana maoM koxvala [saI vaataavarNa maoM r]ica haotaI hOx(yahIMM vah "xibakx sakxtaa hOx")x,x AaOr ApanaI janma BaUima maoM vah Apanao pa`ita kxao[- idlacaspaI paOda nahIM kxr sakxtaax|x[saI kxao iJamaU-nskxI x"xpa`aMtaIyataa AaOr svayama\àsaovaa kxI Avasqaax" kxhtao hOMx| magar kuxC samaya paScaata\ navaInatar x"xsqaanaIyax" saMSaaoQana pairpaUNa-taa kxI eosaI Avasqaa kxao paMhuca sakxtao hOMxx(AaOr ijasao saava-BaaOimakxtaa kxha jaa sakxtaa hO) ikx vao  na koxvala x"xsqaanaIya r}pa saox" x,xbailkx maUla inaima-ita kxI janma BaUima samaota Anya sqaanaaoM par BaIx("xvaOiSvakx star parx")

AakxYa-kx hao jaatao hOMx|xpaiScama kxI saaihityakx ivaQaa {panyaasa kox saaqa r}sa maoM yahI huAax|

Aba hma Baarta AaOr BaartaIya saaihtya kxI Aaor mauDÜtao hOMx| r}saI saaihtya sao iBaÙax,xyaha^M hmaaro saamanao hO ekx kxafÜxI jaiTlax,bahuBaaYaI evama\x ,vaastava maoMxx, bahusaaMskRxtaIya GaTnaax,x@yaaoMikx ekx saaMskRxitakx Xao~a kox r}pa maoM Baartax(diXaNa eiSayaa) kxI  yaUraopa sao (yaa kxma sao kxma paiScamaI yaUraopa sao) taulanaa kxI jaa sakxtaI hOx,xAaOr BaartaIya saaihtya [tanaIx jaiTlaxx(saMimaEa`) x"vastaux" (yaa ekx x"ivacaarx"x, ekx AvaQaarNaa) hO ,xijatanaa ikx yaUraoipayana saaihtya <sup>7</sup> |xekx saupa`isaw BaartaIya saaihtyakxar kRxYNa kRxpalaanaI nao ekx baar ilaKaa qaax: " BaartaIya saaihtya à yah Sabd gaumarah kxr sakxtaa hOx,xjaba takx [sao lagaBaga {tanao hI ivastaRta Aqa- maoM na ilayaa jaayao jaOsao ikx SabdàyaUraoipayana saaihtya...... [sakxIx(Baarta kxIàsao.sao.) BaaYaaAaoM evaM saaihtya kxI baaOKalaanao vaalaI ivaivaQataa yaUraopa kxI BaaYaaAaoM evama\ saaihtyaaoM kxI ivaivaQataa sao pa`itaWinWtaa kxrtaI hOxx" <sup>8</sup>x| samaUcao BaartaIya taqaa yaUraopaIya saaihtyaaoM kxax,xk`xmaSa: {nakxIxeoitahaisakx vaRiw taqaa ivakxasa kox pairpa`oXya maoMx taulanaatmakx AQyayana x(jaha^M takx mauJao &aata hO) ABaI takx ikxyaa nahIM gayaa hOx| yah vaastava maoM SaaoQa kxa ekx AakxYa-kx Xao~a hao sakxtaa hOx| vata-maana saMdBa- maoM yah kxhnaa payaa-pta hO ikx x"xBaartaIya saaihtyax" kxI AvaQaarNaa kxao  yaUraopa sao Baarta maoM un transfert culturel (saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNa) kox r}pa maoM samaJaa jaa sakxtaa hOx| yah AvaQaarNaa 19vaIMM SataabdI kox yaUraopaIya ivaWanaaoMx(BaartaivadaoM) kxI ekx pairkxlpanaa  hOxx(ekx fÜOxSanaobala Sabd kxa pa`yaaoga kxroM taao) <sup>9</sup> | sava-pa`qamax,x[sa baata par cacaa- kxI jaa sakxtaI hO ikx Baarta kxI hI AvaQaarNaa BaIxàekx eoitahaisakx evama\ saaMskRxitakx samaga`taa kox r}pa maoMxx,xvaOidkx kxalax,xbaaOw Qama-x,xjaOna Qama-x,xtatpaScaata\ kox ihndutvax,xtaqaakxiqata  "x[slaamaàkxala KaNDÜx" AaOr taqaakxiqata "xiba`iTSa àkxalaKaNDÜ kxao samaavaoiSata kxrnao vaalao r}pa maoMà19vaIMx(yaa 18vaIM) SataabdI maoM paiScamaI ivaWanaaoM kxI pairkxlpanaa hO AaOr ijasao svayaM (kuxCx,xsaBaI nahIM) BaartaIyaaoM nao BaI maanyataa dI qaIx|xdUsarox,svayaM saaihtya kxI hIx(BaartaIya saaihtya  r}paI ekx jaiTla AvaQaarNaa kox ekx AMSa kox r}pa maoM) vyaapakx AvaQaarNaa BaI yaUraopa sao hI Aa[- hOx|

yaUraoipayana saaihtya  kxI AvaQaarNaa BaI ekx ivalamba sao janmaI pairkxlpanaa  hI hOx,xmagar yah mauiSkxla sao hI saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNa  (transfert culturel) kxa {dahrNa hOx,@yaaoMikx yah pairkxlpanaa  {saI saaMskRxitakx parMpara kox Antaga-ta {idta hu[- qaIx,xijasakox ekx AMSa kxa vaNa-na kxrnaa [sakxa {_oSya hOx|xSaayad yah AvaQaarNaa un transfert temporel (kxalaavaiQa kxa pa`tyaaraopaNa) kxhI jaa sakxtaI hOx,x@yaaoMikx yah vaastava maoM ekx kxalaKaNDÜ kox ivacaaraoM kxa Anyax(BaUta) kxalaKaNDÜaoM maoM hstaaMtarNa kxrtaI hOx|

 BaartaIya saaihtya kxI Aaor vaapasa AayaoM taao ,xsabasao pahlaox,xhma [sakox [itahasa maoM yaUraopa kox @laaisakxlaxx(ga`Ikx taqaa raomana) saaihtyaaoM kox pa`itar}pa kxao doKa sakxtao hOMx| ina:saMdohx,xyah saMskRxta saaihtya hI hO ijasakxa ekx AiKala BaartaIyax(AiKala {pamahaWIpaIya) djaa- qaa (AaOr kuxC hd takx ABaI BaI hO ) ¹⁰ |xxsaMskRxta BaaYaaxx(xga`Ikx evama\ laOiTna kxI ekx x"x[nDaoàyaUraoipayanax" irStaodarx)xko x samaUcao diXaNa eiSayaa maoM mahtva kxI taulanaa yaUraopa maoM ga`Ikx AaOr laOiTna kox mahtva sao kxI jaa sakxtaI hOx| diXaNa eiSayaa maoM saMskRxta kxI inayaita kxI taulanaa yaUraopa maoM laOiTna kox Baagya sao kxI jaa sakxtaI hOx|laOiTna ikxnhIM ivaiSaYT laaogaaoM kxI baaolacaala kxI BaaYaa na rhnao par BaI dIGa- kxala takx yaUraopa maoM {cca saMskRxita evama\ saaihtya kxI x"xAiKala {pamahaWIpaIyax" (AaOr x"x@laaisakxlax") BaaYaa banaI rhIx| magar samaya kox saaqa saaqa laOiTna kxao QaIro QaIro baahr inakxala idyaa gayaa AaOr {sakxa sqaana lao ilayaa raomaansa BaaYaaAaoM ([sakox yauvaa saMbaMiQayaaoM) naox,xAaOr Anya BaaYaa[- samaUhaoM kxI BaaYaaAaoM naox(jÜyaadatar jamao-inakx AaOr slaaivakx)x,xjaao ekx pa`kxar sao laOiTna kxI x"xd<akx saMtaanax" bana gayaox|xdUsarI sahs~aabdI ([-saa paScaata\) maoM yaUraopa kxa ivakxasa ivaiBaÙa rajyaaoM kox saMGaTna  kox r}pa maoM huAax,xkuxC sabasao baDÜo rajyax,xraYT/Iya rajya qaox,x{nakxI ApanaI ApanaI raYT/Iya BaaYaae^M qaIM AaOr [sailayao yaUraoipayana saaihtya kxa [itahasa A@sar raYT/Iya saaihtyaaoM  kox Anaokx [itahasaaoM kox r}pa maoM vaiNa-ta  ikxyaa jaataa hOx( ha^Mlaaikx eosao vaNa-na  kox AaOicatya par savaailayaa inaSaana laga sakxtaa hO)x¹¹ |

diXaNa eiSayaa maoM BaI saMskRxta kxao QaIro QaIro [sakox "xyauvaa irStaodaraoM " ([NDaoàAaya-na BaaYaaAaoM) AaOr kx[- x"xd<akx saMtaanaaoMx(d`ivaDÜx) BaaYaaAaoM Wara ekx ikxnaaro KadoDÜ idyaa gayaax| yah kxhanaI [sakox yaUraopaIya pa`itar}pa kxI ApaoXaa kxhIM AiQakx i@laYT hOx, magar yaha^M hmaoM {sao {sakxI paUrI jaiTlataa maoM nahIM doKanaa hO ,xAipatau hma saMXaopa maoM kuxC ibanduAaoM kxa {llaoKa kxroMgao jaao hmaaro ivaYaya kox ilayao AnaukUxla hOMx ¹² |  

mausalamaanaaoM naox,xjaao {pamahaWIpa maoM 13vaIM sao 18vaIM SataabdI takx pa`mauKa rajanaIitakx Sai@ta qaox,xdiXaNa eiSayaa maoM [slaama kxI dao pa`mauKa ("x@laaisakxla") BaaYaaAaoMx:xxArbaI AaOr fÜxarsaI kxa pa`tyaaraopaNa ikxyaax| 16vaIM AaOr 17vaIM SataaibdyaaoM maoM lagaBaga paUro diXaNa eiSayaa {pamahaWIpa par maugaÜla saama`ajya sqaaipata hao gayaax| pa`Saasanax(saaqa hI [itahasa Saas~ax,xkxavya [tyaaid ) kxI BaaYaa [sa saama`ajya maoM fÜxarsaI qaIx| 18vaIM SataabdI kox {<araQa- sao carmarataa huAa maugaÜla saama`ajya  QaIro QaIro  x"x{<araiQakxar maoM imala gayaax"xxiba`iTSaaoM kxaox,xijanhaoMnao Apanao saama`ajya kxa inamaa-Na ikxyaax(SaasakxIya r}pa sao [sakxI GaaoYaNaa hu[- sana\ 1858 maoM)x| fÜxarsaI kxao ekx rajakxIyaxx(AaOrx,xekx tarh saox,xx"x@laaisakxlax") AiKalaà{pamahaWIpaIya pa`Saasana evama\ saMskRxita kxI BaaYaa kox r}pa maoM AMga`ojaÜI Wara sqaanaaMtairta kxr idyaa gayaax| AaOr Aaja BaI svatan~a BaartaIya gaNarajya maoM pa`SaasakxIya evama\ saaMskRxitakx ekxtaa AiQakxtar AMga`ojaÜI Wara hI pa`dana kxI jaataI hOx| AMga`ojaÜI kxao vaastava maoM ekx BaartaIya BaaYaa  samaJaa jaataa hO ,xjaao vaakÜx[- maoM vah bana BaI ga[- hOàAnaokx BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM sao ekx  AaOr Saayad ekx primus inter pares |

AaQauinakx BaartaIya doSaI BaaYaae^M ,xAaQauinakx yaUraoipayana BaaYaaAaoM kxI Baa^Mitax,xjÜyaadatar [-saa paScaata\ dUsarI sahs~aabdI maoM Aistatva maoM Aa[-Mx| AaQauinakx (paiScamaI) yaUraoipayana BaaYaae^M kuxC SataaibdyaaoM takx laOiTna kxI C~aCayaa maoM rhIMx| [saI pa`kxar AaQauinakx BaartaIya BaaYaae^M BaI kuxC SataaibdyaaoM takx ApanaI x"@laaisakxlax" BaaYaaAaoM kxI C~aCayaa maoM rhIMx:   ihnduAaoM kox ilayao  yah qaI saMskRxtax,xmausalamaanaaoM kox ilayao ArbaI taqaa fÜxarsaI evama\ 18vaIM SataabdI kox Anta saox daonaaoM hI kox ilayao AMga`ojaÜI |x20vaIM SataabdI kox AMitama carNa takx diXaNa eiSayaa maoM paiScama yaUraopaIya x"raYT/Iya rajyaaoM " jaOsaI kxao[- caIjaÜ nahIM qaIx,xAta: hma mauiSkxla sao hI x"xraYT/Iyax" BaaYaaAaoM taqaa x"xraYT/Iyax" saaihtyaaoM kox baaro maoM kuxC kxh sakxtao hOMx| ifÜxr BaI AaQauinakx BaartaIya BaaYaae^M ivakxisata haotaI rhIMx,AaOr 19vaIM taqaa 20vaIM SataaibdyaaoM maoM {namaoM sao Anaokx BaaYaaAaoM maoM AaQauinakx saaihtyaaoM  kxI {tpai<a hu[- ¹³ | Aaja BaartaIya gaNarajya kxI saaihtya AkxadmaI 22 saaihityakx BaaYaaAaoMx(saMskRxta AaOr AMga`ojaÜI samaota) kxao maanyataa dotaI hO ¹⁴ |

AaQauinakx saaihtya  sao ,xjaOsaa ikx {}par kxha jaa caukxa hOx,taatpaya- hO ekx saamaaijakxx(saaMskRxitakx) saMsqaaàevama\àpa`ik`xyaa sao ijasakox Antaga-ta ikxsaI Xao~aIya BaaYaa  maoM (ivaiBaÙa pa`kxar kox) mauid`ta  paazaoM (texts) kxa ekx iSaiXata  samaudaya kox baIca ivatarNa ikxyaa jaataa hO ,xjaao [na paazaoM kxa "x{payaaogax" kxrtao hOM [nhoM inajaI r}pa maoM (yaa CaoTo CaoTo samaUhaoM maoMx,xjaOsao pairvaar maoM) paZÜkxrx | "xAaQauinakxx" Sabd sao yaha^M evama\ Anya sqaanaaoM par matalaba hO x"xpaiScamaIx"x,xkxma sao kxma x"xpaiScamaI maUla kxax" ¹⁵| Ata: r}sa taqaa Baarta daonaaoM maoM AaQauinakx saaihtyaaoM kox inamaa-Na kxa Aqa- qaax,x Anya baataaoM kox Alaavaax,xivaiBaÙa paiScamaI saaihityakx ivaQaaAaoM kxa k`xmaSa: r}saI AaOr BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM pa`tyaaraopaNa AaOr pairNaamaI GarolaUkxrNax| {panyaasa [nhIM ivaQaaAaoM maoM sao ekx qaax|

r}saI maoM x"x{panyaasax" kox ilayao Sabd hO roman ({ccaarNax:xx"raomaanax")x,xjaao yaa taao jama-na sao yaa ifÜxr saIQao fÜ`oMca BaaYaa sao ilayaa gayaa hOx|xkx[- BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM x"x{panyaasax" kox ilayao koxvala AMga`ojaÜI Sabd novel hI pa`yau@ta haotaa hOxx([sakox ivaiBaÙa {ccaarNaaoMàsaMSaaoQanaaoM kox saaqa)x|

BaartaIya saMdBa- maoM {panyaasa kxI navaInataa [sa taqya sao roKaaMikxta kxI jaataI hO ikx AaQauinakx BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM 19vaIM SataabdI sao pahlao bahuta kxmax(Agar kxao[- qaa taao) gaV qaax| [na BaaYaaAaoM maoM jaao kuxC BaI rcaa gayaa qaax(AaOr [namaoM sao Anaokx rcanaae^M taao mahana saaihityakx kRxitayaa^MóQaaima-kx rcanaae^M qaIM)x,vah lagaBaga hmaoSaa paV r}pa maoM qaax,na ikx gaV r}pa maoMx|xdiXaNa eiSayaa kxI pa`acaIna @laaisakxla BaaYaaAaoMx,xsaMskRxta taqaa fÜxarsaI maoM BaIx,kxqanaatmakx gaV taulanaatmakx r}pa sao kxafÜxI kxma maa~aa maoM qaax,xAaOr ,xbaoSakx,xAaQauinakx {panyaasa jaOsaI kxao[- ivaQaa nahIM qaIx|xkuxCx(magar AiQakx nahIM) sarla SabdaoM maoM kxhoM taaox,vah saIQaax,xsapaaTx,kxqanaatmakx gaVx,ijasakxa saMbaMQa hma {panyaasa kxI ivaQaa sao jaaoDÜtao hOMx,xBaarta maoM yaUraopa sao 19vaIM SataabdI maoM pa`tyaaraoipata ikxyaa gayaa qaax|

[sa transfert culturel (saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNax) kxa paUra [itahasa AaOr na hI {sakox ekx AMSax,xBaarta kxI imaÕI maoM {panyaasa kox pa`tyaaraopaNa kxax, paUra [itahasa Aba takx ilaKaa nahIM gayaa hOx|magar daonaaoM ikÜxssaaoM kxI saamaanya r}paroKaae^M kxmaaobaoSa &aata hOMx| [sa pa`ik`xyaa maoM saMlagna kxma sao kxma taIna yaa caar pa`kxar kox maanavaIya maaQyamaaoM AaOr pa`orNaaAaoM kxao hma pahcaana sakxtao hOM |pahlaax,[-saa[- imaSanarIx(ivaiBaÙa saMpa`dayaaoM kox) jaao Apanaa saMdoSa x"xmaUita-paUjakxaoMMx"x tak  paMhucaanao kox ilayao {tsaukx qaox|xkuxC BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM pahlaI gaVatmakx rcanaayaoM imaSanairyaaoM Wara ilaKao gayao laGau inabaMQa evama\óAqavaa baa[ibala kox paazaoM koxx(gaaospaolsa koxx,xyaa paUro nyaU TosTamaoMT kox ,xyaa paUrI baa[ibala kox BaI) Anauvaad qaox|xkxma sao kxma ekx BaartaIya BaaYaax(Asaimayaa) maoM pa`qama {panyaasaaoM maoM sao ekx ("kxaimanaIkxantaar cair~ax" , êkxaimanaIkxanta kxa jaIvanaëx,xlaoKakxx:xxe.kox. gaunao-x,x1877x) ¹⁶ ekx imaSanarI Wara ilaKaa huAa bataayaa jaataa hOx|xAnya yaUraoipayana paustakxaoM kox Anauvaad BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM saamaanyata: gaV kox evama\ ivaSaoYata: {panyaasa kox pa`tyaaraopaNa kxa mahtvapaUNa- Baaga qaox|x[sa tarh  banyana kox "Pilgrim's Progress"  kxa Anauvaad Anaokx BaaYaaAaoM maoM huAax,ijasanao BaavaI {panyaasaaoM kox ilayao ekx namaUnao kxa kxama ikxyaax| banyana kxI paustakx kxa Anauvaad yaa taao imaSanairyaaoM nao ikxyaa yaa ifÜxr [-saa[- Qama- maoM pairvaita-ta hue BaartaIyaaoM naox|xkxma sao kxma dao BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM pa`qama {panyaasa BaI eosao Qama- pairvaita-taaoM Wara ilaKao gayao qaox: marazI maoM ("yamaunaaàpaya-Tnax"x,xlaoKakxxx: baabaa paÔnajaIx,1857) taqaa taimala maoM ("iparatapaa mautailayaar sairi<armax" ê" pa`taapa maudilayaar kxa jaIvanaëx,laoKakxx: saomyauAla vaodnaayakxma\ ipallaox,x1879) ¹⁷ |

iba`iTSa pa`Saasakx BaI kxBaI kxBaI BaartaIya BaaYaaAaoM maoM gaV rcanaaAaoMxx({panyaasaaoM) kxao janma donao maoM kxarNaIBaUta rho hOMx| {nakox [radox,xkx[- dSaaAaoM maoMx,xiSaXaa sao saMbaMiQata pa`taIta haotao hOMx| [sa pa`kxar ,xgaujarataI kxa pahlaa {panyaasa nandSaMkxr maohtaax(maRtyau 1905) Wara x"xiSaXaaàivaBaaga kox ekx [Mspao@Trx,ximasTr rsaolax,xkox Aaga`h par ,xijasakox maatahta vao kxaya- kxrtao qaxox"x,ilaKaa huAa bataayaa jaataa hOx| sana\ 1866 maoM ilaKaI ga[- yah paustakxx,x"kxrNa Gaolaaox" gaujarataI kxa xpa`qama eoitahaisakx {panyaasax,xyaa AiQakx {icata haogaa yaid kxhoM ikx gaujarataI kxa pahlaa raomaansa  qaa |xyah {panyaasa gaujarata kox AMitama ihndU rajaa kxrNa vaGaolaao kox patana kxI GaTnaa par AaQaairta hOx,xijasao {sakox icaDÜicaDÜo svaBaava kox kxarNa  {sakox kuxla naama vaGaolaao kox sqaana par Gaolaaox(paagala) kxha kxrtao qaoxx" ¹⁸ |[sa baata kxI kxafÜxI saMBaavanaa hO ikx gaujarataI laoKakx nao vaa^lTr skxa^T Wara ricata eoitahaisakx {panyaasa (raomaansa) paZÜo qao AaOr {sanao [itahasa kxao lailata saaihtya maoM pairvaita-ta kxrnao kxI {nakxI takxnaIkx kxao ApanaI rcanaaAaoM maoM hstaaMtairta kxrnaa caahax| [sa saMbaMQa maoM yah baata Qyaana donao yaaogya hO ikx 19vaIM SataabdI maoM svayaM [itahasa kxa ivacaar ihndU maanaisakxtaa maoM QaIro QaIro samaa rha qaax|xxpaarMpairkx ihndU maanaisakxtaa maoM [itahasa jaOsaI kxao[- caIjÜax,x[sa Sabd kox hmaarox(paiScamaI) Aqa-  maoMx,xnahIM qaIx|

magarx,xbaoSakxx,x19vaIM taqaa 20vaIM SataaibdyaaoM maoM AiQakxaMSa BaartaIya {panyaasa eosao BaartaIyaaoM Wara ilaKao gayao qao ijanhaoMnao na taao [-saa[- Qama- kxao Apanaayaa qaax,xna hI kxayaa-laya maoM Apanao iba`iTSa AfÜxsaraoM Wara pa`orNaa paa[- qaIx| {nakox {_oSya mauKyata: vaOsao hI qaox,jaao paiScamaI laoKakxaoM kxao Apanao {panyaasa ilaKanao kox ilayao pa`oirta kxrtao qao AaOr kxrtao hOMx|

pyaarIcand ima~ax(1814à1883)x,xekx kxlakx<aavaasaI baMgaalaI naox,xsana\ 1850 kox dSakx kox maQya maoM baMgaalaI kxa pa`qama {panyaasax,xAaOr saamaanyata: pa`qama BaartaIya {panyaasa "Alaalaor Garor dulaalax" (ijasakxa Anauvaad hao sakxtaa hO

x" baDÜo Gar kxa ibagaDÜa baoTax") ilaKaax|xxyah {panyaasa pahlao ekx sastaI maaisakx pai~akxa maoM k`xmaSa: pa`kxaiSata huAax,xijasakxa pa`kxaSana laoKakx svayaM ikxyaa kxrtao qaox,xAaOr x"x[sakxa {_oSya qaa maihlaaAaoM kxI {Ùaita evama\ {nakxa manaaorMjanax" <sup>19</sup> |xBaUimakxa maoM laoKakx nao ilaKaa qaa ikx {nakxI rcanaa kxa pa`mauKa {_oSya baccaaoM kox gaÜlata ZMga sao laalanaàpaalana kox hainakxarkx pairNaamaaoM kxao dSaa-naa qaax| {panyaasa kxI kxqaavastau ekxdma sarla hOx| kxlakx<aa maoM ekx x"xnava saMBa`antax" ihndU kox dao pau~a hOMx| baDÜa pau~a Anauicata ZMga sao ikxyao gayao laalanaàpaalana kox kxarNa ibagaDÜ gayaa hOx| ipataa kxI maRtyau kox baad vah baurI saMgata maoM paDÜ jaataa hOx,x{sakxI daOlata ifÜxjaÜUla KaÜcaI- maoM {DÜa dotaa hO AaOr inaQa-na hao jaataa hOx| magar {sakxa sadacaarI CaoTa Baa[- {sakxI madd kox ilayao Aataa hO AaOr gaÜrIba Baa[- kxao sanmaaga- par laanao maoM safÜxla hao jaataa hOx|x(kuxC BaartaIya ivaWana yah davaa kxrtao hOM ikx pyaarIcand ima~a nao fÜxIilDMga kox "Ta^ma jaaonsax" kxa Apanao {panyaasa kox ilayao namaUnao kox taaOr par pa`yaaoga ikxyaax,magar [sa baata par mataO@ya nahIM hO)x|

[sa iGasaI ipaTI kxqaaàvastau evama\ sarla {padoSaatmakxtaa kox paICox,xmaora ivaSvaasa hO ikxx,xhma AaQauinakxtaa kxI kuxC baDÜI samasyaaAaoM kxao mahsaUsa kxr sakxtao hOMx,xjaao Anaokx ,xna koxvala BaartaIya ,x{panyaasaaoM maoM dRiYTgaaocar haotaI hOMx| yao samasyaae^M hOM badlatao hue saamaaijakx pairvaoSa maoM ekx vyai@ta kxI samasyaae^Mx|yah vyai@ta parMparagata maUlyaaoM kox AaQaar parx(jaao {sao laalanaàpaalana evama\ iSaXaa Wara saaOMpao BaI nahIM jaatao) nahIM jaI sakxtaax,AaOr na hI vah svayama\ Apanao ilayao na[- maanyataaAaoM kxI talaaSa kxr sakxtaa hOx| pairNaama vah haotaa hO ijasao emaIla duKao-max(E.Durkheim) nao anomie kxha hO (ihndI maoM [sa f`oMxca Sabd kxa Anauvaad " AQaaima-kxtaax" hao sakxtaa hOx)x| vyai@ta kxI eosaI isqaita kxao jaDÜhInataa BaI kxha jaa sakxtaa hOx| yah kxao[- saMyaaoga nahIM hO ikx pahlaa BaartaIya {panyaasa ilaKaa gayaa ekx jaDÜhIna vyai@ta kox baaro maoM AaOr vah pa`kxaiSata huAa kxlakx<aa maoMx,yaanaox{sa Sahr maoM ijasakxI jaDÜoM sqaanaIya imaÕI maoM nahIM hOMx|x{panyaasa kox laoKakxx,xpyaarIcand ima~ax,xihnduAaoM kxI {sa pahlaI paIZÜI sao qaox,xijanakxao AMga`ojaÜI iSaXaa pa`apya qaIx,xAaOr Ata: {nhoM BalaI Baa^Mita &aata qaa ikx saMskRxitayaaoM kox Tkxrava AaOr taIva` gaita sao hao rho saaMskRxitakx pairvata-na vyai@ta kox ilayao ikxsa pa`kxar kox maanaisakx tanaava {tpaÙa kxr sakxtao hOMx|

pyaarIcand ima~a Wara ilaKaI ga[- [sa kxqaa kxao baMgaalaI AaOr BaartaIya saaihtya kox [itahasa maoM gaaOrvapaUNa- sqaana pa`apta hOx| magar [sao Aaja Aama baMgaalaI paazkxaoM Wara {panyaasa  kox r}pa maoMx,xekx saaihityakx kRxita kox r}pa maoM ,xmauiSkxla sao hI paZÜa jaayaogaax|xAaOr yaid {sakxa ABaartaIya paazkxaoM kox ilayao Anauvaad ikxyaa jaayao taao BaI {panyaasa kox r}pa maoM vah safÜxla nahIM haogaIx|

ekx Anya x"pa`qama {panyaasax"x,xmalayaalama saaihtya kox pa`qama {panyaasa kxI baata qaaoDÜI Alaga hOx| [sao ilaKaa qaa candU maonanax(1847à1899) naox,xjaao mad`asa pa`oisaDonsaI kox pa`Saasana maoM kxaya-rta qaox| sana\ 1899 maoM pa`kxaiSata [sa {panyaasa kxa SaIYa-kx baDÜa mauKar hOx:x"[ndulaoKaax.x[Miglasa naaovala maitair[la eJautaappaoÕIÕullaa Aaor] kxqaax" ijasakxa taatpaya- hOx: "[ndulaoKaax.xAMga`ojaÜI {panyaasa kox namaUnao par ilaKaI ga[- kxqaax"x|  kxqaavastau hO ekx x"xpa`oma kxhanaIx" ekx AaQauinakx pairvaoSa maoMx| candU maonana nao mauiSkxla sao hI pa`isaw f`ÜaMsaIsaI ivaWana pyaoràdnyaola Hyauex(Pierre-Daniel Huet , 1630-1721) kxI "xTraité (Lettre) de l'Origine des Romans " ("{panyaasaaoM kox {d\gama par inabaMQaxx"x(1670) paZÜI haogaIx| magar BaartaIya laoKakx kxI rcanaa ekx saaihityakx ivaQaa kox r}pa maoM 17vaIM SataabdI maoM dI ga[- {panyaasa kxI f`xaMsaIsaI pairBaaYaa kox ekxdma Anaur}pa hO :x" ....ce que  l'on appelle proprement Romans sont des fictions d'advantage amoureuses, éccrites en Prose avec art, pour le plaisir et l'instruction des Lecteurs"( "xvaastava maoM ijasao {panyaasa kxhtao hOM ,xvah hOM kxlpanaae^MMàkxilpata kxqaae^MàAiQakxaMSa pa`oma kox baaro maoMx,xgaV maoM kxlaatmakxtaa sao ilaKaI hu[-x,xpaazkxaoM kxao Aanand AaOr {padoSa donao kox

ilayaox" )x|

maaQavanax,ekxx saundr AaOr sauiSaiXatax(ijasakxa Aqa- AMga`ojaÜI ZMga sao iSaiXata) yauvakx hOx,xjaao saundr AaOr {tanaI hI sauiSaiXatax(AMga`ojaÜI taqaa saMskRxta àdaonaaoM maoM) yauvataI [ndulaoKaa sao pa`oma kxrtaa hOx| naayar jaaita kox vao daonaaoMx,vaastava maoM dUr kox irStaodar hOMx,xjaao ekx baDÜo saMyau@ta pairvaar kox Baaga hOMx| magar [sa saMyau@ta pairvaar kxa mauiKayaa maaQavana sao AsaMtauYT hO AaOr vah [ndulaoKaa kxa ivavaah ekx pa`aOZÜ ba`aHmaNax(nambaUid`paad) sao yaugaaoM sao calao Aa rho rIitaàirvaajaaoM kox Anausaar kxrnaa caahtaa hOx| kxafÜxI saMGaYaao-M taqaa gaÜlatafÜxhimayaaoM kox paScaata\ maaQavana AaOr [ndulaoKaa ivavaah kxrnao maoM safÜxla hao jaatao hOMx| pa`oma AaOr ivakxasaSaIla ivacaarQaara kxI ivajaya sao paUva- ekx paUra AQyaaya samaipa-ta hO [-Svar kox Aistatva taqaa BaartaIya raYT/Iya kxa^Mga`osa kxI rajanaIita kox baaro maoM taIna vyai@tayaaoM kox baIca hue saukxrata SaOlaI kox saMvaad kxaox|BaartaIya naarI kxao AMga`ojaÜI iSaXaa kxa vardana donao koxx laoKakx kox AaHvaana kox saaqa {panyaasa samaapta haotaa hOx|

BaartaIya saaihtya kox [itahasakxaraoM Wara "[ndulaoKaax" kxI baDÜI pa`SaMsaa kxI ga[- hO AaOr jaÜaihr hOx,xyah malayaailayaaoM Wara ABaI takx paZÜa jaataa hOx| sana\ 1889 sao 1956 takx [sakxI 53 AavaRitayaa^M inakxla caukxI qaIMx(maoro paasa hala hI kox AaMkxDÜo {palabQa nahIM hOM)x|xsana\ 1890 maoM hI [sakxa AMga`ojaÜI Anauvaad mad`asa x(Aba caoÙaa[) maoM pa`kxaiSata hao gayaa qaa | Anauvaad ikxyaa gayaa qaa jaa^na DËUmaoga- (John Willoughby Francis Dumergue)  Wara jaao mad`asa pa`Saasainakx saovaa maoM laoKakx kox vairYz qaox²⁰ |DËUmaoga- nao hI maUla saMskxrNa maoM laoKakx Wara ilaKaI ga[- BaUimakxa kxa BaI Anauvaad ikxyaa qaax| yah BaUimakxa hmaoM {sa pa`ik`xyaa kox {na maanavaIya pairmaaNaaoM kxa AaBaasa dotaI hO ijasako  Wara paiScamaI saaihityakx xivaQaax(namaUnao) kxa BaartaIya vaataavarNa maoM pa`tyaaraopaNa ikxyaa gayaax| Ata: [sa BaUimakxa kox AarMBa sao ekx baDÜa {wrNa donaa {icata haogaax:

"xmaOMnao AMga`ojaÜI {panyaasa vyaapakx r}pa sao paZÜnaa AarMBa ikxyaa....sana\1886 kox Anta maoMx,xAaOr taba maOM Apanao

kxayaa-layaIna kxta-vyaaoM kox baad kxa saara KaÜalaI samaya {panyaasa paZÜnao maoM lagaa dotaa qaax| [sakox saaqa hI mauJao eosaa pa`taIta huAa ikx maoro GainaYz ima~aaoM kxa samaUhx,xijanakox saaqa maOM Apanaa samaya saamaaijakx baatacaIta taqaa manaaorMjana maoM ibataataa qaax,xsvayaM kxao kuxC {paoiXata samaJanao lagaa hOx,xAaOr maOM eosao {paaya ZUMZÜnao lagaa ijasasao maOM [na sadsyaaoM sao Apanao {panyaasa pazna kxao CaoDÜo ibanaa saulah kxr sakU^Mxx| [sa {_oSya sao maOMnao kuxC {panyaasaaoM kxa saaraMSa {nhoM malayaalama maoM bataanao kxa pa`yatna ikxyaax,xmagar maoro Ea`aotaaAaoM kxao {na dao yaa taIna paustakxaoM kox maoro Wara idyao gayao vaNa-na maoM idlacaspaI nahIM idKaa[- dIx| Anta maoM yah huAa ikx [namaoM sao ekx sajjana laa^D- baIkxnsafÜxIlD kox x"honrIeTa Tompalax" sao baDoÜ pa`Baaivata huex,xAaOr taba {panyaasaaoM kox maaOiKakx Anauvaad saunanao kxI r]ica ekx SaaOkÜ  maoM badla ga[-....Anta maoM mauJasao baIkxnsafÜxIlD kox [sa {panyaasa kxa ilaiKata Anauvaad pa`stauta kxrnao kxI ivanataI kxI ga[-x,xAaOr maOMnao [sao svaIkxar kxr ilayaax| magar jaba maOMnao [sa kxaya- maoM qaaoDÜI pa`gaita kxIx,xtaao maOMnao [sa baaro maoM ifÜxr sao saaocaa AaOr inaScaya ikxyaa ikx [sa pa`kxar kox Anauvaad kxa kxao[- mahtva nahIM haogaax| Apanao ima~aaoM kxaox,xjaao AMga`ojaÜI sao AnaiBa&a hOMx,xmaaOiKakx r}pa sao {panyaasa kxI payaa-pta sahI jaanakxarI donaa maoro ilayao kxizna nahIM qaax,xmagar [sa kxhanaI kxa sahI pa`Baava ilaiKata Anauvaad maoM pa`stauta kxrnaa maoro ilayao AsaMBava qaa....jaba Anauvaad ilaKaa jaataa hOx,taao maistaYkx SabdaoM kxI koxvala ekx Ea`RMKalaa kxao hI ga`hNa kxrtaa hOx,jaao [sa {_oSya kox ilayao payaa-pta nahIM hOx| maaOiKakx Anauvaad kxrtao samaya AMga`ojaÜI AiBavyai@ta kxa sahI Aavaogax,xkxBaI kxBaI ,xbanaayao rKaa jaa sakxtaa hOx,xmagar kxqanax,xpaUrI tarh saox,xsamaJanao yaaogya banaayaa jaa sakxtaa hO ikxsaI kxa^maonT/I kxI sahayataa sao kuxC spaYT kxrkoxx,xhr pa`kxrNa kox ilayao {icata kuxC ivastaRta ivavarNa Warax,xSabdaoM kox {ccaarNaaoM kxao havaàBaavaaoM Wara pa`diSa-ta kxrkoxx| Agar ikxsaI GaaoiYata SabdSa: Anauvaad maoM eosao ivavarNa ,xvyaaKyaae^M taqaa vaNa-na DalaoM jaayaoM taao yah kRxitax,xekx Anauvaad kox r}pa maoM ,xpaUrI tarh naYT hao jaayaogaIx|xifxÜr dUsarI kxiznaa[- yah hO ikx pa`oma pa`saMgaaoM kxaox,xijanakxI AMga`ojaÜI {panyaasaaoM maoM Barmaar haotaI hOx,xmalayaalama maoM ilaiKata Anauvaad maoM pa`stauta kxrnaa sauKakxr nahIM haogaax| Ata: [na saBaI pairisqaitayaaoM par ivacaar kxrnao kox {paranta maOMnao fÜOxsalaa ikxyaa ikx kxmaaobaoSa AMga`ojaÜI kox hI namaUnao par malayaalama maoM hI {panyaasa ilaKanao kxa..."x²⁰ |

Anauvaadkx kxao ilaKao gayao Apanao pa~a maoM laoKakx qaaoDÜI saI iBaÙa saUcaI pa`stauta kxrtao hOM x"x{na kxarNaaoM kxI ijanhaoMnao mauJao malayaalama maoM {panyaasa ilaKanao kox ilayao pa`oirta ikxyaax"x:

"xpa`qamax,xmaorI patnaI kxI {sakxI ApanaI BaaYaa maoM AMga`ojaÜI tajaÜ- par ilaKao gayao {panyaasa kxao paZÜnao kxI [cCa ijasao vah A@sar pa`kxT kxrtaI qaIx,

AaOr dUsarax,xmaorI tarfÜx sao [sa baata kxI kxaoiSaSa ikx @yaa maOM Apanao malayaalaI paazkxaoM kox mana maoMx,jaao AMga`ojaÜI kox jaanakxar nahIM hOMx,saaihtya kox {sa vaga- kox pa`ita r]ica {tpaÙa kxr sakxtaa hU^M jaao  AMga`ojaÜI BaaYaa maoM {panyaasaaoM Wara pa`stauta ikxyaa jaataa hO AaOr ijasakox baaro maoM vata-maana maoM x{nhoM kxao[- jaanakxarI nahIM hOx(@yaaoMikx {nhoM malayaalama maoM ilaKaI saaihityakx rcanaaAaoM kxao hI paZÜnao taqaa sarahnao kxI Aadta hO jaao {na GaTnaaAaoM evama\ pa`saMgaaoM sao BarpaUr hOM jaao pa`kRxita kox ilayao AsvaaBaaivakx hOM AaOr A@sar baohUda evaM AsaMBava haotaI hOMx)x,xAaOr yah doKanao kxI [cCa ikx @yaa vao eosaI ikxsaI kxhanaI kxI pa`SaMsaa kxroMgao ijasamaoM isafÜ- eosao taqya taqaa GaTnaae^M haoM jaao ikxnhIM ivaSaoYa pairisqaitayaaoM maoM {nakox Apanao GaraoM maoM GaiTta hao sakxtaI hOMx;

êtaIsarax,ëmaoro malayaalaI baaMQavaaoM kxao {sa isqaitax,xSai@ta evama\ pa`Baava kox dSa-na kxranaa jaao ApanaI svaaBaaivakx bauiwma<aa evama\ saundrtaa kox ilayao pa`isaw hmaarI naayar maihlaayaoM pa`apta kxroMgaI yaid {nhoM AcCI AMga`ojaÜI iSaXaa dI jaayaox;

AaOr Anta maoM malayaalama saaihtya kxI {Ùaita kox ilayao Apanaa yaaogadana donaax,jaaox,maOM duKa kox saaqa AnauBava kxr rha hU^Mx,ikx hmaaro pa`yaaoga na kxrnao evama\ dur]payaaoga kxrnao kox kxarNa SaIGa` maRtyau kxao pa`apta hao rha hOx" ²² |

baIsavaIM SataabdI maoM malayaalama saaihtya kxa kxafÜxI safÜxlataapaUva-kx ivakxasa huAa AaOr [sa saaihtya maoM Baarta kox Anya saaihtyaaoM kox hI samaana {panyaasa kxao ekx laaokxipa`ya ivaQaa kxa r}pa pa`apta huAax| eosao Anaokx BaartaIya {panyaasakxar hOM ijanakxI {nakxI ApanaI ApanaI BaaYaaAaoM maoM paazkxaoM Wara baDÜI pa`SaMsaa kxI jaataI hOx| [namaoM sao kuxC {panyaasakxaraoM kxao AnauvaadaoM kox Wara AiKala BaartaIya laaokxipa`yataa pa`apta hu[- hOx|

magarx,xjaha^M takx mauJao &aata hOx,xikxsaI BaartaIya {panyaasakxar Wara ikxsaI BaartaIya BaaYaa maoMx(AMga`ojaÜI CaoDÜkxr) ilaKaa gayaa kxao[- BaI {panyaasa Baarta kox baahr safÜxla nahIM huAa hOx| ikxsaI BaI gaV laoKakx kxaoox,xjaao BaartaIya BaaYaa maoMx(AMga`ojaÜI CaoDÜkxr) ilaKataa hOx,xivaSva vyaapaI pa`isawI AaOr óAqavaa saaihtya kxa naaobaula paurskxar pa`apta nahIM hao sakxa hOx| [sakox ilayao kx[- kxarNaaoM kxI Aaor [Saara ikxyaa jaa sakxtaa hOx|

pahlaax,xsaamaanyata: AaQauinakx saaihtya kxa AaOr ivaSaoYata: {panyaasa kxa diXaNa eiSayaa maoM bahuta hI saIimata saamaaijakx AaQaar hOx| vaha^M saaXartaa kxa star paiScamaI yaUraopa yaa r}sa kxI ApaoXaa kxafÜxI kxma hOx|diXaNa eiSayaa maoM Anaokx laaoga (saaihityakx) paaz evama\ kxao[- BaI jaanakxarI saamaanya r}pa sao dRSyaàEa`vya maaQyamaaoM sao Aatmasaata\ kxrnaa baohtar samaJatao hOMx,xbajaaya paazË maaQyamaaoM koxx|[sailayao diXaNa eiSayaa maoM isanaomaa Aita laaokxipa`ya hOx| Aaja kox diXaNa eiSayaa maoM sacamauca iSaiXata haonao kxa taatpaya- hO AMga`ojaÜI maoM iSaXaa paanaax| vaox,xjaao paZÜnao kxI Aadta Dalatao hOMx,AMga`ojaÜI maoM BaI paZÜoMgao hIàAaOr jÜyaadatar AMga`ojaÜI maoM hI paZÜoMgaox| AaOr ekx AMga`ojaÜI paZÜnao vaalao kox ilayao samaUcao x"xivaSva saaihtyax" kox War Kaulao hOMx,jaao sqaanaIya r}pa sao ricata ikxsaI saaihtya kox ilayao ekx

jaÜbad-stax(AaOr Saayad maarkx) pa`itayaaoigataa {tpaÙa kxrtaa hOx|

dUsarax,xdiXaNa eiSayaa kxI saMskRxita yaUraopax(r}sa saihta) kxI saMskRxita sao [tanaI iBaÙa hO ikx BaartaIya paazkxaoM kox ilayao jaao baata idlacaspa evama\ pa`orNaadayakx hao sakxtaI hOx,vah yaUraopaIyax(evama\ Anya doSaaoM kox) paazkxaoM kxao koxvala ivaica~a taqaa ivadoSaI pa`taIta haox|Saayad [saIilayao kxao[- {panyaasakxar mauiSkxla sao hI Baarta evama\ paiScamax(yaa r}sa) daonaaoM hI sqaanaaoM par safÜxla hao sakxtaa hOx|

dUsaro SabdaoM maoM {panyaasa laoKana Baarta maoM ABaI BaI x"svayaMàsaovaax"x(iva. iJamaU-nskxI kox SabdaoM kxa {payaaoga kxroM taao) kox star par hOx| BaartaIya {panyaasax(kxmaaobaoSa safÜxlataa sao) sqaanaIya AavaSyakxtaaAaoM kxao paUra kxrtao hOM magar vao ABaI takx xvaOiSvakx star par x"xibakxnao laayakxx" nahIM hOMx|xekx idlacaspa samaanataa doKaI jaa sakxtaI hO BaartaIya isanaomaa {Vaoga kox saaqax| yah ekx AaOr safÜxla {dahrNa hO transfert culturel (saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNa) kxax|xjaha^M takx ifÜxlmaaoM kox inamaa-Na kxa pa`Sna hOx,xBaarta kxa ivaSva maoM lagaBaga pahlaax(yaid ekxdma pahlaa na hao taao) sqaana hOx| samaUcao diXaNa eiSayaa maoM isanaomaa doKanaa Atyanta laaokxipa`ya hOx| magar diXaNa eiSayaa sao baahr [na ifÜxlmaaoM kxIx "xibak`xIx" kxa @yaa?

ifÜxr BaI ivaiQa kox ivaQaana kxao doKa paanaa AsaMBava hOx| AaOr yah saMBava hO ikx 21vaIM SataabdI maoM BaartaIya {panyaasax(AaOr Saayadx,xBaartaIya ifÜxlmaoM BaI) baakÜxI duinayaa maoM AcCa pa`dSa-na kxroMgaox|

 

iTppaiNayaa^M

1. yah laoKa sana\ 2002 maoM AMga`ojaÜI maoM ilaKaa gayaa qaa pa^irsa maoM Aayaaoijata ekx sammaolana kox ilayaox| baad maoM , f`oMxca BaaYaa maoMx,x[sao “L’horizon anthropologique des transferts culturels” (Paris, 2004) naamakx paustakx maoM pa`kxaiSata ikxyaa gayaax| paustakx kox SaIYa-kx kxa (jaao ikx sammaolana kxa BaI SaIYa-kx qaa) Anauvaad [sa pa`kxar ikxyaa jaa sakxtaa hOx:x“The anthropological horizon (perspective) of cultural transfers” or “Cultural transfers in anthropological perspective”.(maanava vaO&aanaIya pairpa`oXya maoM saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNax)x|xjaha^M takx maOM samaJataa hU^Mx,x"xsaaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNax" kxI pairkxlpanaa(AaoM) kxao "saaMskRxitakx {QaarIx" kxI pauranaI pairkxlpanaa kox AnaupaUrkx taqaa saMSaaoQana kox r}pa maoM pa`stauta ikxyaa gayaa hOx| [sa pairkxlpanaa kxa taatpaya- yah hO ikx kuxC laaogax(kxao[- saMskRxita ) ikxnhIM dUsaro laaogaaoMx(dUsarI saMskRxitax) sao kxao[- caIjaÜ laotao hOM AaOr [sa x"caIjaÜx" kxao Apanaa banaa laotao hOMx,x{sao jaOsao kxa taOsaa x" GarolaU banaatao hOMx"| jabaikx "saaMskRxitakx pa`tyaaraopaNax" kox Antaga-ta koxvala kxao[- caIjaÜ "sqaanaaMtairtax" kxI jaataI hO kuxC laaogaaoMx(ikxsaI saMskRxita) sao ikxnhIM dUsaro laaogaaoMx(dUsarI saMskRxita) kxao ,xibanaa [sa baata kxI parvaah ikxyao ikx nayao vaataavarNa maoM [sa "caIjaÜx" kxa @yaa haogaax|x[sa pa`kxarx,x{dahrNa kox ilayao , hma kxh sakxtao hOM ikx "xkÜxanaUna kxI savaao-ccataax"x,x"xsaMsadIya laaokxtaM~ax" evama\ "xmaanavaaiQakxarx" kxI paiScamaI kxlpanaae^M r}sa kxao sqaanaaMtairta kxI ga[-Mx,xmagar @yaa r}sa maoM {nhoM paUrI tarh "{Qaar ilayaa gayaax"xxAqaa-ta\ @yaa {nhoM svaIkxar kxrkox "xGarolaU banaayaa gayaax"? yah ek xKaulaa pa`Sna hOx|

2.Toynbee A. The World and the West. London, Oxford UP , 1953 , p.2.

3. kxlakx<aa evama\ saoMTàpaITsa-baga- kox baIca kxI samaanataa kxao kx[- laoKakxaoM Wara roKaaMikxta ikxyaa gayaa hOx|

Saayad [namaoM sabasao pahlao qao roijanaalD hobar Reginald Heber (1783 - 1826), ekx kxivax,yaa~aI jaao Apanao jaIvana kox Anta maoM kxlakx<aa kox ibaSapa bana caukox qaox| sana\ 1805à1806 maoM vao maa^skxao AaOr paITsa-baga- gayao qao taqaa sana\ 1823 maoM kxlakx<aa Aayaox|11 A@TUbar 1823 kxao [sa Sahr kox Apanao pahlao AnauBava kox baaro maoM vao ilaKatao hOMx:x"...paUrax(hO) [tanaa paITsa-baga- kox kuxC BaagaaoM jaOsaax(AaofÜx!) ikx ikxsaI AaOr jagah kxI kxlpanaa kxrnaa mauiSkxla qaax"(Bishop Heber in Northern India. Selections from Heber’s Journal / Ed. by M.A. Laird. Cambridge, 1971, p.43).25 janavarI 1824 kxao Aar. hobar nao ApanaI maa^M kxao ilaKaax: " kxlakx<aa baDÜI caaOMkxanao vaalaI jagah hOx,xmagar yah paITsa-baga- sao [tanaI imalataI jaulataI hOx,xha^Mlaaikx {sakox maukÜxabalao kxma Saanadar hOx,xikx mauJao kxBaI kxBaI r}sa maoM haonao kxa AaBaasa haotaa hOx|pa`mauKa GaraoM kxa vaastauiSalpa ekx hI hO..." (Heber R. Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India. Vol.2. London , 1828 ,p.318);

Agalaa ijaÜk`x maOM kxr}Mgaa ekx r}saI yaa~aI taqaa SaaOikÜxyaa ica~akxar ipa`nsa Alao@sao[ iÔi~ayaoivaca saailtakxaofÜx(1806à1859) kxax| 1840 kox dSakx maoM {nhaoMnao dao baar Baarta kxI yaa~aa kxI AaOr Apanao AnauBavaaoM kxao paoirsa maoM pa`kxaiSata ekx f`oMxca paustakx maoM pa`kxaiSata ikxyaax(19vaIM SataabdI kox kuxC Anya r}saI kuxlaInaaoM kxI Baa^Mita ipa`nsa saailtakxaofÜx ApanaI janmaBaUima kxao bada-Sta nahIM kxr paatao qao AaOr svaocCa sao ekx pa`kxar kxa inavaa-isata jaIvana vyataIta kxrtao qaox)x: Saltikoff A.D. Lettres sur l'Inde êBaarta kox baaro maoM pa~aë. Paris , 1848. ( id. 09.10.1841 kxao ilaKao pa~a maoM saailtakxaofÜx ilaKatao hOMx: " hmanao kxlakx<aa kox saamanao laMgar DÜala idyaax|pahlaI najaÜr maoM Sahr paITsa-bauga- jaOsaa pa`taIta haotaa hOx: nadIx,xnaovaa jaOsaI hI caaODÜIx,xyaUraoipayana BavanaaoM kxI kÜxtaaroMx,xijanakox baIca maoM kxafÜxI jagah CUTI hu[- hOx,xinacalaI jagahoM AaOr mastaUlaaoM kxa paUra jaMgalax| magar kOxsaI gamaI-x,xkOxsaI GauTnax!x" (yah {WrNa maOMnao hala hI kxI r}saI AavaRita Салтыков А.Д. Письма об Индии. Москва, 1985, с. 60) sao ilayaa hOx|);

 maoro Agalao gavaah hOM pa`isaw f`xaMsaIsaI BaUgaaolaàvao<aa AaOr ArajakxtaavaadI Élisée Reclus (eilajao ro@lyaU) (1830 – 1905)| {nhaoMnao ilaKaax: "...maaOsama maoM AaOr laaogaaoM maoM fÜxrkÜx haonao kox baavajaUd ApanaI zMDI inayamainaYza evama\ BavanaaoM kox iGasaoipaTo ivanyaasa kxI dRiYT sao kxlakx<aa AaOr paITsa-bauga- ekx dUsaro kox samaana hOMx") ( Reclus E. Nouvelle geographie universelle. La terre et les hommes. T.8 ênavaIna sava-vyaapaI BaUgaaola.xBaUima taqaa manauYya. KaND 8ë.Paris, 1883,p.375);

AMitama {wrNa do rha hU^M 20vaIM SataabdI kox f`oMxca BaUgaaolaàvao<aa JyaUla syaaoMx(Jules Sion)x(1879à1940)xkxax: "...mahlaaoM kxa Sahrx(kxlakx<aa) ApanaI AtyalaMkRxta [maartaaoM kxaox,x{YNakxiTbaMQaIya pa`doSa maoMx,ekx navaàga`Ikx SaOlaI maoM paMi@tabaw ikxyao hOx, jaao AaScaya-janakx r}pa saox,xkxIcaDÜ maoM inaima-ta ekx Anya kRxi~ama Sahrx,xpaITsa-bauga- jaOsaI pa`taIta haotaI hOMx" ( Sion J. Asie des mousons. 2me partie. Inde. Inde-Indochine-Insulinde êmaanasaUnaaoM kxa eiSayaa. dUsara Baaga. Baarta. BaartacaIna (Indochina). WIpaBaarta  (Indonesia)]. Paris , 1929 , p.306.)

4. Pushkin A. Eugene Onegin Tr. by Charles Johnston. With an introduction by John Bayley. Harmondsworth (Penguine books), 1979.

5. [Seth V.] The Golden Gate. A Novel in Verse by Vikram Seth. N.Y., Random House , 1986.do. [sa paustakx maoM maora laoKaxx"xivak`xma saoz kxa "id gaaolDna gaoTx"  evama\ Alao@saand` paUiSkxna kxa "yaovgaonaI Aaonaoiganax"xx|

6. Zhirmunsky V.M. Gete v russkoi literature (r}saI saaihtya maoM gyaaoqao) [2nd ed.] Leningrad , Nauka , 1982 , p.30 , 33.

7. vaOkxilpakx r}pa sao, samaUcao Baartaxx(diXaNa eiSayaa) kxI taulanaa jaataIya r}sa sao ( jaOsaa ikx AalaoKa kox SaIYa-kx sao inaYkxYa- inakxalaa jaa sakxtaa hOx) nahIMx,xAipatau (jaOsaa ikx AalaoKa kox AarMBa maoM sauJaayaa gayaa hO) eoitahaisakx r}saI saama`ajya (ijasao 1922 sao 1991 takx saaoivayata saMGa kxha jaataa qaa) sao kxI jaa sakxtaI hOx| tadnausaarx,xsamaUcao BaartaIya saaihtya kxI taulanaax(kuxC ApavaadaoM kxao CaoDÜkxr) saaoivayata saMGa kox taqaakxiqatax "bahuraYT/Iya saaoivayata saaihtyax" sao kxI jaa sakxtaI hOx|

8. Kripalani K. Literature of Modern India. A panoramic glimpse. New Delhi : National Book Trust , 1982 , pp.2-3.

9.do. {da. Mukherjee S. Towards a Literary History of India. Simla , 1975 , pp.5-15.

10. [sa ivaYaya par Ea`oYz paiScamaI paustakx ABaI BaI hO : Keith A.B. A History of Sanskrit Literature. London (OUP) , 1920 , (Anaokx AavaRitayaaoM maoM). tau. saaqa hI M.Winternitz (AgalaI iTppaNaI do.) History of Indian Literature.

11. do. [sa paustakx maoM maora laoKa x"xsaaihtyaaoM kox ivaiSaYT samaudaya  kxI AvaQaarNaax: ekx Baartaivad\ kox dRiYTkxaoNa saox"x|

12. BaartaIyax(diXaNa eiSayaa[-) saaihtya kox [itahasa kox ivastaRta pairpa`oXya kox ilayao maaoirtsa ivantaoina-tsa kxI paustakx ABaI BaI {payaaogaI hOx: Winternitz M. Geschichte der indischen Litteratur.êBaartaIya saaihtya kxa [itahasa. KaND 1à3ë Bd. 1-3. Leipzig. , 1908-1922 ; Winternitz M. A History of Indian Literature. Vol. 1-3 ( ijasakxI sana\ 1927 kox baad ivaiBaÙa AavaRitayaa^M inakxla caukxI hOMx,xlaoikxna {namaoM sao kuxC hI kxa sampaadna laoKakx Wara ikxyaa gayaa hO evama\ {nakxa pa`aiQakxar {sakox  Wara idyaa gayaa hOx)| magar Aba [sakox saaqa kuxC AaOr paustakxaoM kxa BaI {payaaoga kxrnaa haogaax| tau.  Chatterji S.K. Languages and Literatures of Modern India. Calcutta , 1963 ; Dimock  E.C.Jr.a.o. The Literatures of India. An Introduction. Chicago and London (the Un. of Chicago Press), 1978 ( Aagao [sa AalaoKa maoM kuxC AaOr saMdBa- ). êAba yah paustakx BaI do. Literary Cultures in History. Reconstructions from South Asia / Ed. by Sheldon Pollock. Berkeley etc., Un. of California Press, 2003ë|

13. do. {da. Chatterji S.K. {}par inaid-YT paustakxx|

14. 1960 kox dSakx ko  AarMBa sao saaihtya AkxadmaI ivaiBaÙa BaartaIya saaihtyaaoM kox [itahasaaoM par ekx Ea`MRKalaa pa`stauta kxr rhI hOx| Aba lagaBaga baIsa eosao x"x[itahasax" pa`kxaiSata hao caukox hOMx|

15.ekx vaad ivavaad calaa Aa rha hO [sa baaro maoMx,xikx @yaa x"AaQauinakxIkxrNax" sao taatpaya- AvaSyaMBaavaI r}pa sao x"xpaiScamaIkxrNax" sao hOx,xmagar yaha^M hmaoM [sa samasyaa maoM gahro jaanao kxI jÜar}rta nahIM hOx|

16. Goswami P. Fiction in Assamese. Gauhati , 1963 , p.1; Sarma S.N. Assamese Literature (A History of Indian Literature / Ed. by J. Gonda. Vol. IX ,part II , Fasc.2) ; Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz , 1976 , p.91.

17. do. {da. The Novel in India. Its birth and developement / Ed. by T.W.Clark. London,: Allen and Unwin , 1970 , pp.84-86 , 184-189.

18. Jhaveri M. History of Gujarati literature. New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi , 1978 , p.85.

19. The Novel in India . p.36.

20. maoro paasa [sa Anauvaad kxI dUsarI AavaRita hOx: Chandu Menon. Indulekha. A novel from Malabar / Tr. into English by W. Dumergue . Calicut : Mathrubhumi , 1965.

21. Chandu Menon . Indulekha , p.x-xi.

22. vahIMx, p.xvi.

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